Heat transfer
ALUPOR™ is an innovative material based on cast aluminum with open pores, that reveals new possibilities in the field of thermal management. Now it is possible to create compact, efficient, and task-adapted heat exchange devices thanks to ALUPOR™ high specific surface area, controlled porous structure, and good thermal conductivity of the metal matrix.
How it works
Heat from the heated surface penetrates deep into the coolant flowing through the pores via the metal matrix. Next heat is efficiently distributed into fluid due to the high specific internal surface by contact thermal conductivity. In the case of cooling, this process occurs in the reverse order.
Advantages
- 100% permeable structure
- Fully controlled and stable structural parameters
- High heat transfer surface area per unit volume
- Parts are manufactured by casting: we are able to produce complex shapes
- Threading available for both solid metal and porous sections
- Components combining solid and porous sections in a single product
- Superior strength compared to other porous aluminum technologies
- Parts with integrated tubes in a single product
- Environmentally friendly – material recyclable as aluminum scrap
Limitations
- Pressure losses during coolant flow through the pores will be higher compared to traditional solutions
- The porous structure reduces thermal conductivity relative to solid metal (20–25% of solid metal)
- Not suitable for media contaminated by dust and other solid particles that would clog the pores: preliminary filtration is required
- Aggressive fluids will interact more actively with porous metal due to the developed reaction surface area. That will happen even if we consider solid aluminum to be resistive at the same conditions
- Repair complexity: if the porous structure is damaged, repair and restoration of original characteristics becomes difficult
Despite these drawbacks, modern technologies make it possible to minimize many of them, making porous metal heat exchangers competitive in certain application areas. However, when choosing this type of heat exchanger, it is necessary to take into account these limitations and operational characteristics.
Inappropriate application case
Let's consider a typical case: a finned heat exchanger made of ALUPOR™. This option may be viable, but it is highly unlikely to produce the desired effect for the following reasons:
- To achieve maximum efficiency, it is necessary to ensure uniform supply of the coolant into the material volume
- Thermal conductivity is significantly lower compared to solid metal
- Only the surface layer of pores will be ventilated by the fan
- The majority of airflow will follow the path of least resistance – between the fins
Conclusion: fine-pore structure is not suitable for that case. Regarding coarser pores there remains a question of efficiency: the increase in heat transfer surface area must sufficiently compensate for the reduced thermal conductivity of ALUPOR™ compared to solid metal.
We are always necessary to perform engineering calculations numerical modeling before ordering a sample.
Manufacture abilities
- Maximum dimensions of the final part: 850 × 650 × 150 mm
- Minimum plate thickness:
- 3 mm for parts up to 300 mm,
- 5 mm for parts up to 500 mm,
- 8 mm for parts over 500 mm
- Final product weight: up to 150 kg
- Manufacturing method: casting with vacuum impregnation of NaCl (see here...)
- Threading available for both solid metal and porous sections
Parts with Solid Metal Sections (SMS) are a significant advantage of our technology because we eliminate thermal resistance at the interface between the solid and metal sections. Possible options for manufacturing parts with solid metal sections are presented below.
Parts with embedded elements: our technology allows us to incorporate tubes, plates, and profiles made of aluminum, copper, and stainless steel during casting. As a result, we obtain a complex product in a single casting process.
case study
Standard design enhancement
Tube-in-tube.
Increase of heat transfer surface
Spiral-in-tube cooler.
Enhancement of heat transfer from pipe to environment
Plate heat sink.
The cold and hot circuits are both made of ALUPOR™ with solid metal divider plates.
Phase change coolers
Contour heat exchanger with phase change and natural coolant circulation made of ALUPOR™
Contour phase change heat sink with wick coolant supply made of ALUPOR™ with fine pores
Capillary lifting experiment
Electric heaters
Flow-type air heater.
Heat distribution from heating elements (HEs) through ALUPOR™
Contour phase change heat sink with wick coolant supply made of ALUPOR™ with fine pores
Flow-type air heater. Resistive heating element is ALUPOR™ itself
Scientific reference
Heat transfer in porous meadia occurs through contact thermal conductivity, convection and radiation. In most cases contact thermal conductivity is dominant. However, the role of radiation can significantly increase at high temperatures.
Symbols definitions
Constants
R=8,314 462 618 153 24 [J/(mol×K)] - gas constant;
Physical properties
c [J/(kg×K)] - specific heat capacity;
λ [W/(m×K)] - heat conductivity;
μ [Pa×s ] - dynamic viscosity;
ρ [kg/m³] - density;
σ [Sm/m] - electrical conductivity.
Physical values
Ffilt [m²] - filtration surface;
j [kg/(m²×s)] - specific mass flux;
Q [J] - heat quantity;
T [K] - absolute temperature;
t [°C] - temperature;
V [m³] - volume;
v [m/s] - velocity;
vfilt [m/s] filtration velocity;
αS [W/(m²×K)] - surface heat transfer coefficient;
αV [W/(m³×K)] - volumetric heat transfer coefficient;
τ [s] - time.
ALUPOR™ structure parameters
Π [dimensionless] - porosity;
Smin [dimensionless] - ratio of minimal solid cross-section and filtration area (same as minimal void cross-section of packed bed).
dp [μm] - mean pore size.
Ssp [m²/m³] - specific surface area.
Subscripts
#f value related to fluid ;
#s value related to solid (metal matrix);
#p value related to pore volume(example: velocity in pores);
#n value related to necks between pores (example: velocity in necks);
#Me value related to solid metal;
#AP value related to ALUPOR™;
#eff effective property of composite (example:"ALUPOR™-air" system);
Heat conductivity
The heat conductivity of porous metals is significantly lower than solid metals one. It depends on porosity, pore size, and shape. Increasing porosity leads to a decrease in heat conductivity.
The main factors affecting the heat conductivity of porous metals:
- Heat conductivity of the metal matrix itself: ALUPOR™ made of pure aluminum will have higher heat conductivity than ALUPOR™ made from aluminum alloys
- Presence of closed pores: ALUPOR™ has a structure with open and semi-open porosity. This means that in our case, this factor can be neglected.
- Porosity: The greater the volume of pores in the metal, the lower its heat conductivity. This is due to the fact that the air filling the pores has low heat conductivity, which impedes heat transfer through the material.
- Minimum cross-section of the metal matrix: This is a bottleneck and actually determines the heat flow through the porous body. It is directly related to porosity. Usually determined from the model of close-packed spheres (fictitious bed). This parameter is what determines the heat conductivity of ALUPOR™.
Heat capacity
Specific heat capacity is to be calculated by simple formula:Density
Density of ALUPOR™ is also can be defined by simple relation as:Heat transfer coefficient
For ALUPOR™ one can define two types of heat transfer coefficient: surface αS and volumetric αV which are related as: where
αV [W/(m³×K)] - volumetric heat transfer coefficient;
αS [W/(m²×K)] - surface heat transfer coefficient;
Ssp [m²/m³] - specific surface of ALUPOR™;
V [m³] - volume of ALUPOR™ porous section. The process of heat transfer from the pore surface to the cooling medium is characterized by the surface heat transfer coefficient. However, its experimental determination often encounters difficulties due to the lack of data on the dimensions of the internal pore surface of porous bodies. Therefore, when processing experimental data, the volumetric heat transfer coefficient in porous bodies is usually used which can be determined by the formula: where
ts [°C] - temperature of elementary solid volume ΔV;
tf [°C] - temperature of coolant in that volume;
τ [c] - time, whicch passed while ΔQτ [J] have been transferred.
Mean value of volumetric heat transfer coefficient is usually determined experimentally as: here
Tin [K] и Tout [K] is temperature values at inlet and outlet correspondingly
is mean temperature difference between solid and fluid;
Results of experimental measurement are usually treated in terms of dimensionless criteria: where Nusselt number in pores defined as and Reynolds number defined by velocity of fluid in pores by following equations: Velocity of fluid in pores and filtration velocity has following relation: For more details on hydraulics in porous media, please refer to the "Filtration" page.
No corresponding studies of the heat transfer coefficient have been conducted for ALUPOR™. However, since ALUPOR™ is an inverse replica of the sphere packing we can estimate it by known correlations for sintered metals, for instance: In above formula we have as dimensionless thickness of porous layer assuming l0=1 mm.
The correlation has been experimentally verified with variations in:
- Reynolds numbers from 0.04 to 5.0
- Porosity from 0.3 to 0.5
- Sample thickness from 1.0 to 5.6 mm
The formula allows calculating the volume-averaged heat transfer coefficient in porous metals, which provides only an approximate representation of the local heat transfer coefficients in the porous medium. However, it can be stated that the values of the local heat transfer coefficient on the cooler inlet of porous metal piece exceed the values of the volume-averaged heat transfer coefficient, since even in 1 mm thick samples the temperatures of the gas and porous wall at the outlet are close. The best understanding of local heat transfer coefficients can be obtained from experiments with porous plates of small thickness. The absolute values of this coefficient in 1 mm thick plates are quite high, ranging from 107 — 108 W/(m³·°C).
Electrical Conductivity
It is possible to use resistive heating of ALUPOR™ with electric current. For that end we can use the least electrically and thermally conductive alloys for ALUPOR™ production, such as AMg10 or magnesium casting alloys.The relationship between thermal conductivity and electrical conductivity in metals and alloys is determined by the Lorentz number.
L: Considering porous metal we can use estimation for electrical Conductivity as we did for thermal conductivity: Lets go ahead and try to estimate Electrical Conductivity of AlMg10. For solid alloy it is 12.8×106 Sm/m, for ALUPOR AlMg10 it is 2.6×106 Sm/m. For comparison we want to give the value of ordinary resistive alloy: Ni80Cr20 - 1.13×106 Sm/m. As we can see, the values are very close.
Capillary lifting of fluids
Height of capillary lift lcap and time of process τ are related as follows: coefficient k have to be defined experimentally for every pore size range of ALUPOR™. Alas, we did not done it yet and we need to obtain the data.Heat transfer equations
For numerical simulation of heat transfer in porous media, two main approaches are used:Equilibrium Method:
The system "Fluid - porous metal" is considered as a single entity. The classical heat transfer equation (Fourier-Kirchhoff) is solved for this system: Here, heat capacity, thermal conductivity, and density are averaged effective characteristics for the “Coolant - porous metal” system. The equation is suitable for modeling at low flow velocities and high porosity. In our opinion, its application to AUPOR™ is practical for designing heat exchangers with phase change.
There are ready to go solutions to solve that equation. For instance: ANSYS Fluent, COMSOL Multyphisics etc.
Nonequilibrium method: For the metal matrix and for the coolant, two equations are formulated:
- for the fluid — the Fourier-Kirchhoff equation;
- for the metal matrix — the Fourier heat conduction equation.
Reference list
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Fiedler, T. & Movahedi, Nima. (2023). Compact Aluminium Foam Heat Exchangers. Metals. 13. 1440.
Fiedler, T. & Movahedi, Nima & Stanger, Rohan. (2024). On the Efficiency of Air-Cooled Metal Foam Heat Exchangers. Metals.
Khodabandeh, Nastaran & Shokouhmand, Hossein. (2012). Two-Temperature Model for Improvement of Heat Transport in PCMs Using Porous Matrix. World Applied Sciences Journal.
Mohseni Languri, Ethan & domiri ganji, Davood. (2011). Heat Transfer in Porous Media.
Amhalhel, Gamal & Furmański, Piotr. (1997). Problems of modeling flow and heat transfer in porous media. 85.
Li, W.Q. & Qu, Zhiguo & He, Y.L. & Tao, Wen-Quan. (2012). Experimental and numerical studies on melting phase change heat transfer in open-cell metallic foams filled with paraffin. Applied Thermal Engineering. 37. 1–9.
Mao, Shaolin. (2014). Correlation studies of hydrodynamics and heat transfer in metal foam heat exchangers. Applied Thermal Engineering. 71. 104-118.
Das, M.K., Mukherjee, P.P., Muralidhar, K. (2018). Equations Governing Flow and Transport in Porous Media. In: Modeling Transport Phenomena in Porous Media with Applications. Mechanical Engineering Series. Springer, Cham.
Nield, D.A., Kuznetsov, A.V. A Two-Velocity Two-Temperature Model for a Bi-Dispersed Porous Medium: Forced Convection in a Channel. Transp Porous Med 59, 325–339 (2005).
Garimella, Suresh & Krishnan, Rs & Murthy, J.Y.. (2005). A Two-Temperature Model for Solid/Liquid Phase Change in Metal Foams. Journal of Heat Transfer. 127. 995-1004.
ALUPOR™ has high specific internal surface and at the same time high heat conductivity, that made the material very perspective for implementing to effective heat exchange. Those properties may ensure almost instant heat flow.
Standard heat pipes contain liquid and its gas phase. The liquid vaporizes and goes to condenser. After cooling in condenser liquid goes back for evaporation.
Porous aluminium ALUPOR™ possess capillary action.
Porous structure can lift the liquids up. We believe it can be used as wick structure in heat pipes, similar to sintered metals, screens or grooved wicks.
The results of some experiments are shown in videos placed below.